Most publications relating to Maltese prehistory and history tend to start their narrative with the arrival of Neolithic man on our islands, at around 5,200 to 5,900BC.

Nonetheless, we know through the discovery of fossilised bone remains, that before Neolithic Man, the Maltese islands were populated by animals such as elephants, hippopotami, deer, bear, wolves and foxes, giant dormice and other fauna, the oldest of which are tentatively dated to the early Middle Pleistocene.

The Pleistocene and the Holocene epochs comprise the ‘Quaternary’ period which spans the last 2.58 million years of Earth’s history. The Holocene extends from about 11,700 years ago, till the present day.

Many of Malta’s fossiliferous Pleistocene/Holocene deposits have been discovered infilling rock crevices or as accumulation of sediments within caves and valleys, and have been known at least since the 17th century.

It was only during the latter half of the mid-19th century that proper scientific research started to shed some light on the true significance of these remains. Several works have consequently been produced, detailing excavations and their associated remains, mostly concerning the famous cave site of Għar Dalam.

An in-depth study I conducted while reading for a master’s degree in science with the University of Malta, finalised in 2015, aims at presenting a holistic interpretation of these previous studies, encompassing all Maltese sites and their fossiliferous contents.

Each identified site has been thoroughly analysed and a stratigraphic sequence with associated organic remains created, with particular emphasis on Għar Dalam. In all, 80 sites have been identified, distributed throughout Malta and Gozo.

This research aims to raise awareness towards safeguarding this important national heritage

Several topics related to the Maltese Pleistocene/Holocene, as well as Sicilian sites, are discussed in this study. The adapted holistic analysis has permitted the recognition of new ‘faunal complexes’, ‘local faunal assemblages’ (LFA) and ‘stages’.

The designated terminology adapted for these new Maltese faunal complexes is based on the type localities from where the faunal assemblage had been excavated.

‘Maltese faunal complexes’ are chronologically analogous with, or nearest to, a postulated influx of species within the Maltese islands.

‘Local faunal assemblages’ are more localised, associated with a particular site or limited number of sites, and may contain only one species or a limited assemblage of species which are not necessarily representative of a whole faunal complex.

Assemblages which chronologically occur between postulated influxes of species are designated under ‘stages’.

An upcoming publication is discussing in detail the newly proposed Maltese faunal complexes, local faunal assemblages and stages, from the earliest and oldest:

The Mnajdra/Wied il-Ħesri/Bengħisa faunal complex exhibits marked endemic characteristics, indicative of an insular system and is characterised by the presence of the smallest elephant species Palaeoloxodon falconeri (shoulder height of about 0.9m), with at least another elephant species P. mnaidriensis (shoulder height of about 1.9m), together with other fauna including giant dormice Leithia melitensis, L. cartei, Maltamys gollcheri, reptiles, amphibians and birds.

The Tal-Ġnien Fissure/Magħlaq Cave local faunal assemblage includes species from the previous faunal complex, such as Leithia melitensis, L. cartei and Maltamys gollcheri, as well as a new influx of species including otter, shrew and hippopotamus.

Middle Cave local faunal assemblage: In the Sicilian site of Isolidda 3, the oldest occurrence of a vole species has been recorded from sediments which postdate the extinction of Leithia. At the Middle Cave site, the earliest occurrence of a vole species has been found below sediments containing Leithia melitensis.

The Wied Inċita/Tal-Ħerba Fissure 2/Għar Dalam Bone Breccia Layer faunal complex is recognised by the co-occurrence of Leithia melitensis, Leithia cf. melitensis and Maltamys wiedincitensis, associated with other species, such as hippopotamus, Cervus (a genus of deer) and Ursus (a genus in the family of bears). Dormice remains seem to be absent from sediments postdating this faunal complex. This is considered as the second faunal dispersal in the Maltese islands.

The Hippopotamus-only local faunal assemblage: At Għar Dalam a hippopotamus-only layer occurs above the Bone Breccia Layer, within the lower part of the Upper Clay Layer, in the inner reaches of the cave where the Pebble/Small Boulder Layer is missing.

The Mrieħel Girls Grammar School/Għar Dalam Upper Clay and Pebble/Small Boulder Layer (post-Glirid/pre-Microtus Terricola) stage is characterised by macro mammals but the seemingly total absence of micro mammals.

The deer-only local faunal assemblage: at Għar Dalam several researchers have recorded only deer remains from the lower part of the Red Earth Layers.

The Microtus (Terricola) melitensis Għar Dalam faunal complex: this faunal complex is characterised by the presence of the water vole Microtus (Terricola) melitensis, analogous with the Pitymys melitensis Stage of Storch (1974), and the upper part of the Red Earth Layers of Caton Thompson (1925) and Trechmann (1938). This is the most varied and balanced Maltese faunal complex, tentatively coinciding near to the Last Glacial Maximum MIS 2 or MIS 3, when a continuous land bridge between Malta and Sicily was most probable. This is considered as the third and last faunal dispersal in the Maltese islands.

The Għar Dalam Early Post-Proboscidean stage: the uppermost Red Earth levels at Għar Dalam represents a stage when the largest megaherbivores, the elephant and hippopotamus, had already become extinct and possibly only deer remained, associated with small-sized carnivores and other species.

The prehistoric or Apodemus sylvaticus stage included remains of domestic animals, possibly associated with those of deer, small-sized mammals including the wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus, shrew, rat, bats, frog, toad and gastropod species. This stage is analogous with associated artefacts spanning from the Għar Dalam Phase to the Bronze Age.

The historic/cultural or Rattus rattus stage: this is the youngest stage of the Maltese Quaternary and chronologically spans from the Phoenician to modern times. At Għar Dalam, it is represented within the superficial layers.

A scientific artistic impression of the Microtus (Terricola) melitensis Għar Dalam faunal complex. Painting commissioned by the author in 2013, and original housed in the author’s collections. Artist Michael Rothman (US)

Stratigraphy of sediments and associated faunal remains

Għar Dalam is undoubtedly the most significant palaeontological site on the Maltese islands, which contained the most extensive Quaternary sequence of sediments and associated fossil remains known to date.

Following Arturo Issel’s initial exploratory excavation of Għar Dalam in 1865, several other researchers have excavated this cave site, primarily towards the end of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century.

In the course of this present research, published reports of these excavations at Għar Dalam have been analysed in great detail and a stratigraphy of sediments and associated faunal remains, reconstructed. This permitted the identification and interpretation of a more detailed and accurate stratigraphy of both sediments and the fossilised remains interred therein.

Consequently, Għar Dalam’s stratigraphy has been revised and, proceeding upwards, the following layers have been identified, designated as:

(a) the Lower Clay Layer − adapted from G. Caton Thompson (1925); synonymous with the ‘Sterile layer’ of C.T. Trechmann (1938), and the ‘Bone-free Clay Layer’ by G. Zammit Maempel (1989). The term ‘Lower Clay’ is considered more suitable since this clay layer was not actually completely sterile.

(b) the Bone Breccia Layer − adapted from Caton Thompson (1925) and Trechmann (1938); synonymous with “Hippopotamus Layer” (Zammit Maempel, 1989); “Maltamys sp. stage or Gliridae stage”, and “Layer VII” (Savona-Ventura & Mifsud, 1998); “Leithia cartei Stage” or “Hippopotamus-Brekzie” (Storch,  1974); “Hippopotamus-Schicht” (Fischer & Stephan, 1974); and “Bone breccia VI, VII” (Hunt and Schembri, 1999). The term ‘Bone Breccia Layer’ is considered more suitable since, although hippopotamus remains predominate within this bone bed, other remains of elephants and other fauna were also recorded. The term ‘Hippopotamus Layer’ gives the impression that only hippopotamus remains were found and could also be confused with the Hippopotamus-only local faunal assemblage (LFA) being newly proposed in this research.

(c) the Pebble/Small Boulder Layer − of Zammit Maempel (1989); the terminology used by Zammit Maempel is adapted here, with some slight modification. Most authors erroneously incorporate this layer along with the Bone Breccia Layer below.

(d) the Upper Clay Layer − of Caton Thompson (1925), occurs over the Bone Breccia Layer in the inner parts of the cave where the Pebble/Small Boulder Layer is apparently missing. This Upper Clay Layer incorporates within its lower part the Hippopotamus-only LFA of Għar Dalam.

Surviving stratigraphic columns at Għar Dalam.

(e) the Red Earth Layers − of Caton Thompson (1925), and Trechmann (1938). In the lowermost part of the Red Earth Layers, the deer-only LFA of Għar Dalam is recognised. The Għar Dalam Microtus (Terricola) melitensis faunal complex (see picture on the left) is synonymous with the Pitymys melitensis stage of Storch (1974), recognised in the upper stratigraphy of the Red Earth Layers. An Għar Dalam early post-Proboscidean stage is also recognised in the upper sediments of the Red Earth Layers, stratigraphically occurring below the intermittent stalagmitic formations termed as a “stalagmitic floor” and “calcareous sheet”.

(f) an Intermittent Stalagmitic Floor or Calcareous Sheet − as termed by Trechmann (1938) and Zammit Maempel (1989), respectively. These stalagmitic formations are stratigraphically positioned in the uppermost part of the Red Earth Layers and below the overlying Prehistoric/Historical Layers.

(g) an Upper Pebble Bed and angular rocks − made up of water-worn pebbles and angular fragmented rocks, possibly man-made, sometimes recorded overlying the upper Stalagmitic Floor.

(h) the Prehistoric or Apodemus sylvaticus stage − equivalent to the Prehistoric Layer of Trechmann (1938), and Apodemus sylvaticus stage, of Storch (1974), stratigraphically occurring above the Red Earth Layers, contemporaneous with the arrival of Neolithic Man in the Maltese islands.

(i) the Historic/Cultural or Rattus rattus stage − the ‘Historic Layer’ by Trechmann (1938), ‘Kulturschicht’ (Cultural Layer) of Storch, 1970), the ‘Rattus rattus-Stufe’ (stage) by Storch (1974), and the Domestic animals Layer/Cultural Layer/Pottery Layer by Zammit Maempel (1989); representing the uppermost sediments at Għar Dalam, contemporaneous with Punic to modern times.

(j) the Superficial Boulder Bed − comprising a layer of boulders reported by several excavators, as being the topmost deposit at Għar Dalam.

Another important, albeit negative, aspect has emerged from this research, that is the drastic decline in the number of discovered new sites containing fossil remains of Quaternary faunas. Considering the intense ongoing construction activity in our islands, it is very evident that something is unfortunately amiss.

This research appeals to the concerned authorities and aims to raise awareness towards safeguarding this important national heritage.

Much has been written and researched, but we have more questions than answers. This situation may be addressed by the discovery of new sites which are crucial to a better understanding of this remote period of Malta’s past.

It is not the scope of this concise write-up to give all the obtained data, but an upcoming publication entitled Għar Dalam – A Window into Malta’s Past Quaternary Faunas will be available by end of this year.